Impact of the US Media on Public Attitudes

Impact of the US Media on Public Attitudes The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and â€Å"work the ref† until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faà §ade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resul ting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to change public opinion, as Phillip Knightley explains: [S]izable minorities in both the United States and Britain were against such a war and although the mainstream media largely ignored their protests, these had to be dampened down unless they gained strength. Hussein had to be demonised. He was painted as being ruthless, another Hitler, a fanatic, deranged, a psychopath, hated by his own people and despised in the Arab world. Further, from the moment his troops had arrived in Kuwait they had committed unspeakable atrocities (Knightley 2001, p. 486). In addition to the restriction of information the media echoed government messages demonising Hussein and his actions. In this respect opposition to the conflict became tantamount to support for Saddam Hussein. Opposition was deemed unpatriotic. By ignoring public protest and presenting this interpretation of events the American public were being shamed into non-verbal opposition and the opinions of proponents of the war were bolstered by the apparent large-scale acceptance of their opinions, as witnessed through the media. Such a perception of events in conflict is at odds with the reality highlighted by Flynt in this and the subsequent conflict in Afghanistan: [W]e had no media with the troops in Afghanistan. Hardly anyone realized that most western reporters were being kept far from the front lines. The war news was being censored. We were being spoon fed commentary and military press releases masquerading as hard news. That was not only an insult to the American people, it was a huge disservice to news coverage in general (Flynt 2004, pp. 162-163). On a subject as emotive as conflict one would expect a mass media to be rife with opinions and conflicting views, representing the fears and worries of a diverse American public. The reverse was in fact true. The media demonstrated in the most tense of times that not only could and would it shape the perception of the conflict to the American people; it was also willing to gloss over public attitudes and expressions of dissent in a misled quest for patriotism in a manner that had historical precursors: In joining forces to sell the Cold War to the American people, government and industry professionals clearly knew they violated precepts of a free and independent press, but they justified it to themselves as a necessary patriotic duty in a fearsome age (Bernhard 1999, p. 179). Military conflict is one arena where the influence of the media is enhanced as the American public thirst for information. However, it also appears to be the occasion when the media is most likely to filter the information it provides. As with military confrontations the influence of media affects not only US public but also beyond. As Edward Herman and Robert McChesney point out the American model for global media is the likely ideal for other world media, as is, arguably, the democratic system of government (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 137). This also includes cultural infiltration of the American way of life with publics of other nations. Herman and McChesney go so far as to state that: We also think it very important to recognize that media effects are inseparable from broader economic, political, and cultural influences, such as external military occupation and rule, foreign indirect rule through sponsored authoritarian regimes†¦ military and police aid and training, economic and financial linkages, and tourism and educational exchanges, all of which are at least as imbalanced as media exports and imports (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 155). In a mass media world, where the reach of information is global, perhaps one should consider not only the influence on the American public, but also the worldwide cultural influence. The impact of the American media on public attitudes and behaviour is great. The media have an unparalleled hold over information dissemination to the wider public and the message, according to many commentators, is all too readily accepted. However the messages portrayed are not the result of individual reportage and endeavour on the part of journalists. The mass media is shaped by government and commercial interests that combine to reduce diverse outlets to the same messages. In times of heightened national interest in the news agenda, such as during conflict, the process is more restricted than normal. In essence the media present the contradiction of a mass, diverse organism that through the widespread regurgitation of similar messages, lends credence to those messages, influencing the publics judgement as to their infallibility. Bibliography Articles Jordan, Donald, Newspaper Effects on Policy Preferences, Political Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 57, 1993, pp. 191-204. Books Bernhard, Nancy, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960, (Cambridge: 1999). Cook, Timothy, Governing with the News. The News Media as a Political Institution, (London: 1998) Flynt, Larry, Sex, Lies and Politics. The Naked truth about Bush, Democracy and the War on Terror, (London: 2004). Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert, The Global Media. The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, (London: 1999). Knightley, Phillip, The First Casualty. The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo, (London: 2001). Taylor, Philip, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945, (London: 1997). The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and â€Å"work the ref† until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faà §ade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resul ting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to

Bright Light Therapy

Bright Light Therapy, also known as light therapy or phototherapy, is a relatively new treatment method that is still being researched to define its usage and effectiveness. Light therapy is the treatment of certain psychological disorders via exposure to bright fluorescent lights for up to four hours a day or as little as fifteen minutes a day. Light exposure is thought to regulate melatonin levels in the blood and, as such, has been most effective in treating seasonally affective disorder or SAD (Columbia 2).However, the method has been researched to treat other common disorders as well. Sleep insomnia, dementia and some forms of skin cancer are a few of the examples. Just like with any other alternative medical treatment to pharmacological methods, light therapy has come under strong critical review and its implementation has been low compared to drug therapies. History Historically, humans were not thought to be affected by seasonal changes in day length (Rohan et al 491).Because of this, currently accepted seasonal disorders such as SAD were not known in the medical field. It was not until doctors researched specific causes of depression that were known to become onset in late fall and remitted in the spring, was a connection made between time of sun exposure and depression (SLBTR. org). A new disorder, SAD had been defined and continues to be hotly debated today. Although light treatment can be dated all the way back to Aristotle, who suggested treatment for certain diseases by lying in the sun, modern methods began in the 1950’s (slbtr.org) Originally, light was used as a device for the removal of skin acne until research on the subject of light therapy was conducted by Dr Lewy in the 1980’s, the founder of the Society for Light Treatment and Biological Rhythms (slbtr. org). The first documented treatment of a person with SAD was an engineer complaining of depression that came at the same times each year. Two hours of artificial sunlight in both the morning and in the evening were administered at the first onset of depression.The treatment was deemed successful, and since then over 2,500 people have been treated for SAD as well as numerous other conditions with light therapy. Implementation and Use Light therapy is mostly thought to affect the levels of the light-sensitive hormone melatonin in the blood (Columbia. edu). It is this hormone that is responsible for day-night cycles of the body. When subjected to high levels of light the body is stimulated negatively to produce less melatonin or to â€Å"skip ahead† in its cycle. Thus, the effects of depression caused by SAD are avoided.Some of the long term effects of increased melatonin levels have also been studied with mixed results coming from treatment with light therapy. The exact implementation of the treatment varies greatly for different people. Some research has shown the most effective time of treatment to be in the waking hours or just before waking wh ile still others believe the best time to be in the evening hours just before bed. The length of time patients are exposed to the light also changes depending on how much the patient is affected or the severity of the issue.Still again, the intensity of the light can be changed according to personal comfort or need (Skjerve et al 518). The number of variables in the method of light therapy has prevented the successful study of the treatment in many instances. It is difficult to determine the correct level of treatment for conditions that in themselves have not yet been thoroughly documented. While potentially negative side effects in the use of light therapy are minimal they do still exist. Some patients experience nausea, headaches, or eyestrain/irritation. These are generally mild, though, and dissipate after just a few days (Columbia).Another, much more infrequent, effect of light therapy is a state of hyperactivity, called mania. This is typically observed in the late spring or summer months (Cancer. org). It is most easily prevented through constant supervision from the physician and proper light therapy usage. Retinal discomfort has also been reported among some patients. This can be solved through the use of special glare-reducing glasses made exclusively for the purpose of light therapy, but often times those with retinal pathologies, such as glaucoma or cataracts are excluded from studies and are therefore usually excluded from treatment as well (Columbia).Otherwise, with proper medically accepted light therapy devices the side effects are minimal. The acceptance of light therapy has been met with strong opposition. Several factors have affected the widespread use of light therapy as a method for controlling any number of disorders. The cultural stigma attached with any alternative to Western medicine has prevented many people from accepting the treatment as opposed to conventional medicine.Evidence directly linking the method to treating certain cond itions has also been spotty due to the difficulty of finding patients to research and building an experiment that would irrefutably confirm light therapy as a treatment for whatever illness was tested. Finally, the actual treatment itself has kept many people from following through with the recommended dosages. Numerous patients have been reported as quitting treatment because of the length of time commitment necessary or discomfort reported by sitting in front of a bright box for hours on end (Rohan et al, 492).Newer light therapy technologies have been developed that reduce the time required to approximately 15 minutes a day and that have various light spectra that don’t produce glare for the user, but until proper research has been conducted on all of these new methods acceptance of the treatment will remain relatively when compared to modern pharmacological medicines. Applications Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the efficacy of light therapy in treating different disorders. Dementia is a condition that has received the attention of many researchers attempting to discover its root cause and resulting treatment.The irregular sleep patterns observed among patients with dementia has been hypothesized to be corrected with bright light therapy. As explained before, the exact dosage and type of light are yet to be determined but a study by Ancoli-Israel et al measured continuous sleep activity in elderly patients in nursing homes before and after treatments of morning, evening and both morning and evening bright light therapies. A significant change in sleep patterns was exhibited by the morning/evening treatments with no statistically significant changes shown by the singular morning or evening treatments.It was suggested by the authors to increase the ambient levels of light in common areas of the nursing home in order to easily treat the symptoms of sleep disturbance exhibited in patients with mild to severe dementia. Insomnia has also been shown to be treatable with light therapy. It has been documented in treating several types of sleep disorders in patients not afflicted with dementia including delayed sleep phase type patients, advanced sleep phase syndrome and nonentrained sleep and wake disorders (Atwood 53-55).Trials have been more effective in studying the effectiveness of light therapy in patients not suffering from other psychological disorders but the same problems that exist in other studies also exist when studying general sleep disorders. The evidence presented by Ancoli-Israel et al is promising, however a meta-analysis conducted by Skjerve et al has pointed out many of the flaws in the light therapy treated dementia studies and by association many of the other studies conducted by researchers concerning light therapy. First, few of the trials were controlled, inasmuch they can be controlled according to generally accepted standards.All of the studies suffered from a small number of patients in whi ch to research and because of that experienced problems with numerous external variables affecting the results. Practicability of the treatment was not studied in any of the trials. The implementation of light therapy depends largely on the ease of use of the product and a solid body of knowledge associated with it. Proper research, with the exception of the Arconi-Israel et al trial has yet to be conducted on a large scale. Thusly, no conclusive treatment methods can be developed.Before treating for seasonal affective depression and other psychological conditions, light therapy was thought to be effective in treating skin conditions such as psoriasis or skin acne. The treatment is still used to treat patients with psoriasis with limited success but is not as widely used for patients with skin acne. The feasibility of asking people to sit in front of a light box for several hours at a time for a relatively benign issue as skin acne is pointed to as the biggest cause of the ineffecti veness of the treatment. Light therapy is, however, an accepted from of treatment for psoriasis (Psoriasis. org).The type of light in this case involves the use of ultraviolet B rays which can cause skin irritation. Treatment has to be more closely monitored than during light therapy used for SAD. Despite this, UVB rays have been shown to penetrate the skin and affect underlying skin cells, thereby slowing their growth and slowing the process of psoriasis. Light therapy is used more often for the treatment of seasonal affective depression, by far. Research for this type of use far exceeds any other method of treatment. The Society for Light Treatment and Biological Systems advocates the use of light therapy as an effective treatment for the disorder.People suffering from SAD report greatly increased amounts of daily sleep, general state of chronic depression and avoidance of social situations. While many people experience â€Å"the winter blues†, reported to be as much as thr ee times as many people as those with clinical SAD, actual SAD is an extreme level of depression that affects the daily life of those suffering from it (slbtr. org). With the first use of light therapy to treat an engineer suffering from chronic depression on an annual basis to today, light therapy has been used as a significant treatment of the psychological disorder.Unfortunately, despite the use of light therapy for the widespread treatment of SAD, concrete evidence linking it to the effective treatment of the disorder is rare. The same problems afflicting the dementia studies exist in the SAD studies. Development of an acceptable experiment, acquiring suitable patients and the relative difficulty of recording immediate results have all held back the proliferation of the treatment for treating SAD. Conclusion Light therapy, just like most other alternative medical treatments, has had difficulty in developing a solid body of evidence in support of the hypotheses that have been att ached to it.Effective treatment of SAD, some skin disorders and several types of sleep disorders have been shown to be treatable by light therapy. Dementia, other forms of depression and even cancer have been shown to be inconclusively treatable by light therapy. That does not mean, however, that light therapy is not effective in solving issues with anything other than seasonal affective disorder or sleep disorders. Problems of proper experimental method, small amounts of people tested and efficacy of the treatment have impeded light therapy clinical trials.Unfortunately, cultural roadblocks lie in the way of the widespread use of light therapy. Further research of light therapy is necessary in several fields of the subject. First, conclusive evidence of the link between light therapy and its leading treatable syndrome, SAD, is necessary. A proper, supervised and controlled clinical trial must be developed that can be accepted by the peers of those experimenting. Once that is create d, a large number of subjects must be tested in order to prevent external variables from affecting the statistical outcomes of the experiment.Once conclusive evidence is determined on the efficacy of treating SAD with light therapy, further research can be conducted in other treatments such as certain types of skin cancers. As difficult as this may seem by itself, funding is limited for most alternative medical treatments. Funding of the treatment must be acquired in order for light therapy to be proven as a compelling method of treatment. In the meantime, light therapy will continue to be used as a method of treating seasonal affective depression and several types of sleep disorders. References â€Å"ACS :: Light Therapy.† American Cancer Society :: Information and Resources for Cancer: Breast, Colon, Prostate, Lung and Other Forms. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 May 2010. . Ancoli-Israel S, Gehrman P, Martin JL, et al. 2003a. Increased light exposure consolidated sleep and strengthe ns circadian rhythms in sever Alzheimer’s disease patients. Behav. Sleep Med 1. 22-36. â€Å"Light therapy – MayoClinic. com. † Mayo Clinic medical information and tools for healthy living – MayoClinic. com. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 May 2010. .â€Å"National Psoriasis Foundation – Phototherapy. † National Psoriasis Foundation – National Psoriasis Foundation: Dedicated to finding a cure. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 May 2010. . Physicians, American College of Chest. ACCP Sleep Medicine Board Review 2008:Course Syllabus. 1 ed. Basel: S. Karger Publishing, 2008. Print. â€Å"Q&A on Bright Light Therapy. † Columbia University in the City of New York. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 May 2010. . Rohan, Kelly J. , Kathryn A. Roecklein, Kathryn Tierney Lindsey, Leigh G. Johnson, Robert D.Lippy, Timothy J. Lacy, and Franca B. Barton. â€Å"A Randomized Control Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Light Therapy and Their Combination for Seasonal Affectiv e Disorder. † Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75. 3 (2007): 489-500. Print. Skjerve , Arvid , Bjorn Bjorvatn, and Fred Holsten. â€Å"Light Therapy for Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of of Dementia. † International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 19 (2004): 516-522. Print. â€Å"Society for Light Treatment & Biological Rhythms. † Society for Light Treatment & Biological Rhythms. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 May 2010. .

Top Reflection Essay Topics Guide!

Top Reflection Essay Topics Guide! The Foolproof Reflection Essay Topics Strategy Writing is among the things which I used to hate the most. Students often ask us this question, since it's not a regular assignment and has several peculiarities, which one wants to remember to do in the best way possible. They lead busy lives and often forget about an upcoming deadline. Students all over the world can take aid from our very best writers. The Characteristics of Reflection Essay Topics You ought to use the thesis to state the topic position and offer a reason behind the stance. My decision to modify career goals inspired the self-reflection essay sample before you. Write a conclusion about the way you've changed over a given time period. The reason could be that they aren't utilised to writing or they don't understand what precisely to write. Therefore, this kind of essay is a favorite at different phases of school and college education. Wisdom is acquired through reflectio n of a person's experience in addition to of the surroundings. Writing quality research proposals has at all times been a herculean undertaking for many students. The Essentials of Reflection Essay Topics That You Can Learn From Starting Right Away In addition, it provides you a notion of the way the people around perceive you, letting you compose a more holistic reflective essay. When you're describing a specific event or appealing to someone's feelings, it is necessary to produce your language live and attractive. You may wish to let your reader relive the experience so that you are able to get a notion of what you went through. Also, there can be someone out there who knows a great deal about media. The Lost Secret of Reflection Essay Topics Since you may see, the notion of the way to compose a reflection essay is versatile and can be handled in a lot of scenarios. Such kind of essay writing requires to receive concentrated on the intense inner emotions rather than focus ing on an occasion. The best method to compose such essays is to maintain your focus on your own personality. 1 essay topic may be a journal entry from the view of a classmate. When writing an essay utilizing these varieties of reflective essay topics, you will want to demonstrate the interaction between you and the other individual, and by what method the individual has altered your life. Among the effective methods to make writing easier is to get an outline. The Hidden Truth About Reflection Essay Topics The comments on the papers are difficult to read since there are so a lot of them in 1 spot. You may have completed previous assignments on the topic that you are now able to expound upon. As you pay for homework, we provide those options free of charge. Your most preferred on-line space. The Honest to Goodness Truth on Reflection Essay Topics Once you are all set to begin your paper, you must create a reflective essay outline. It may be tough to write a sort of essay for the very first time. Any professor will reduce your grades in the event the paper consists of plenty of typos, grammar and lexical mistakes, and several different imperfection s. Always make sure you commence this sort of paper with one enormous observationlearning how to compose a reflective essay on a book doesn't need to be hard. Hopefully you are starting to obtain a better grasp about how to select from the endless forms of reflective essay topics and perhaps even a better idea of the way to begin writing your essay. The very first thing every student should fully grasp how to compose a reflective essay is a powerful, detailed outline. The very first point to help write a fantastic reflective essay is to create an outline. Many people discover that it's troublesome to compose a personal reflection essay or an essay generally. The 5-Minute Rule for Reflection Essay Topics The worst paper I have written within this class would need to be the visual analysis. The student may also write on the lengthy term impacts of the drug and steroid usage. Occasionally it is even their specialty. Use the textbook as evidence within this part of your paper as a type of support. After all, life is simply a string of events, and those that you remember most vividly are the ones which is likely to make the best essay s. At the exact same time, one-of-a-kind events or experiences are also rather very likely to produce excellent topics. Often it's written through a person to explore personal experiences feelings and events. At times, a place about which you have a few really nice and strong memories will be sufficient for you to experience a boost and compose some rather good reflective essays.

How to Speak Like a Italian Like

If you want to learn Italian, forget your native tongue. If you want to speak Italian like a native, then spend some time in Italy speaking only Italian. If you want to read Italian, then pick up an Italian newspaper and peruse whatever section interests you. The point is, if you want to achieve competency in Italian, you must think like an Italian—and that means getting rid of the helpers that are real hindrances and standing on your own two (linguistic) feet. Bilingual Dictionaries Are a Crutch Speaking English to your friends is a waste of time if your goal is to speak Italian. Making grammatical comparisons between English and Italian are worthless. It sounds counterintuitive, but in the end, each language has rules and forms that are unique and sometimes illogical. And translating back and forth in your head before speaking or reading is the ultimate fools errand that will never lead to real-time speaking competence. Interact With Native Speakers So many people approach language as a science and get completely tongue-tied—witness the e-mail questions this SiteGuide receives daily about obscure Italian grammatical points and textbook recommendations. Learners obsess over minutiae, as if Italian could be dissected, instead of speaking Italian and interacting with native speakers. Imitate them. Mimic them. Ape them. Copy them. Let go of your ego and make believe youre an actor trying to sound Italian. But please—no books with something else to memorize. That turns off students immediately and is not effective in the least. Ignore English Grammar If there’s one bit of advice I can offer to anyone studying Italian, regardless of your level: Stop thinking in English! Ignore English grammar—you’re wasting a lot of mental energy trying to translate literally and construct sentences according to English syntax. In a letter to the editor in The New York Times Magazine, Lance Strate, an associate professor of Communication and Media Studies at Fordham University in The Bronx reinforces this point: ...it does not follow that all languages are equal, and therefore interchangeable. If this were true, the translation would be a relatively simple and straightforward affair, and learning another language would involve nothing more than learning to substitute one code for another, much like using Roman numerals. The truth is that different languages differ in highly significant ways, in grammar as well as vocabulary, which is why each language represents a unique way of codifying, expressing, and understanding the world. We do not become fluent in a new language until we stop translating and simply start thinking in the new language, because each language represents a distinctive medium of thought. Let Go of Your Fear of Making Mistakes Your goal should be to communicate, not sound as if you have a Ph.D. in Italian grammar (you’ll never do it, anyway, since there are only a small number of native Italians who are that well-versed in the intricacies of their own language. But certainly, most of them can communicate their every emotion, fear, want, and need.). Your biggest mistake, and what will hold you back, is using English as a crutch and being afraid of opening your mouth wide and singing that lovely language called la bella lingua. At the risk of sounding discouraging, a lot of language learners just don’t get it, and never will. It’s similar to taking dance lessons. You can put cut-out feet on the floor with numbers on them and take lessons from an expert, but if you don’t have rhythm, and you don’t have that swing, you’re always and forever going to look like a klutz on the dance floor, no matter how many lessons you take and how much you practice. So what do you do if you’re not a good dancer and weren’t born with natural rhythm? Scripted Responses Learning scripted responses in foreign languages is unproductive. Every textbook for beginners devotes many pages to dialogue that’s stilted and simply doesn’t occur in real life. So why teach it?! If you ask a person on the street Dov’e’ il museo? and he doesn’t respond according to the script you memorized, then what? You’re stuck, because there is an infinite number of potential responses, and none of us has enough time on the face of this earth to memorize them. And that person on the street is going to keep on walking because he’s headed to a great pizzeria. Learning scripted responses in foreign languages encourages a false sense of confidence. It doesnt translate into real-time speaking competence nor will you understand the musicality of the language. It’s like looking at a musical score and expecting to be a master violinist just because youve memorized the notes. Instead, you have to play it, and play it again and again. Likewise with the Italian language. Play with it! Practice! Listen to native Italian speakers and mimic them. Laugh at yourself trying to pronounce gli correctly. Italian, more so than many languages, is musical, and if you remember that analogy it will come easier. There is no secret, no Rosetta Stone, no silver bullet when it comes to learning a language. You have to listen and repeat ad nauseum. You will make a quantum leap in learning Italian when you abandon your native tongue and disengage from the grammar that you implicitly learned when you were a child.